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Technology in Education: Looking Toward 2020 (Technology and Education Series)
by Raymond S. Nickerson Philip P. ZodhiatesSome of today's educational experts were asked to envision the year 2020, when technology has assumed a major role in elementary and secondary education. The informed conjecture that followed is contained in this volume; contributors offer visions of the future as well as specific steps that could turn those visions into realities. Innovative ideas for research, development, hardware, software, teacher training, technical assistance, organizational and cultural change are offered as a means to illuminate the potential role of technology in the educational systems of tomorrow. Technology in Education is a thought-provoking statement of what can and should be done to advance the application of technology to education over the next few decades. As such, it should be read by all researchers and professionals in educational technology.
Technology in Mathematics Teaching: Selected Papers of the 13th ICTMT Conference (Mathematics Education in the Digital Era #13)
by Gilles Aldon Jana TrgalováThis book comprises chapters featuring a state of the art of research on digital technology in mathematics education. The chapters are extended versions of a selection of papers from the Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Technology in Mathematics Teaching (ICTMT-13), which was held in Lyon, France, from July 3rd to 6th. ICTMT-13 gathered together over one hundred participants from twenty countries sharing research and empirical results on the topical issues of technology and its potential to improve mathematics teaching and learning. The chapters are organised into 4 themed parts, namely assessment in mathematics education and technology, which was the main focus of the conference, innovative technology and approaches to mathematics education, teacher education and professional development toward the technology use, and mathematics teaching and learning experiences with technology. In 13 chapters contained in the book, prominent mathematics educators from all over the world present the most recent theoretical and practical advances on these themes This book is of particular interest to researchers, teachers, teacher educators and other actors interested in digital technology in mathematics education.
Technology in Schools
by Kevin P. BradyEducation of America's school children always has been and always will be a hot-button issue. From what should be taught to how to pay for education to how to keep kids safe in schools, impassioned debates emerge and mushroom, both within the scholarly community and among the general public. This volume in the point/counterpoint Debating Issues in American Education reference series tackles the topic of technology in schools. Fifteen to twenty chapters explore such varied issues as the digital divide, electronic textbooks, impacts on curricula, privacy on school computers, web censorship, and more. Each chapter opens with an introductory essay by the volume editor, followed by point/counterpoint articles written and signed by invited experts, and concludes with Further Readings and Resources, thus providing readers with views on multiple sides of technology issues within America's schools and pointing them toward more in-depth resources for further exploration.
Technology in Second Language Writing: Advances in Composing, Translation, Writing Pedagogy and Data-Driven Learning (Routledge Research in Language Education)
by Jingjing Qin Paul StapletonThis edited volume showcases state-of-the-art research in technological applications in second language writing. It examines multimodal composing, digital feedback, data-driven learning, machine translation and technological applications in writing pedagogy. Technology in Second Language Writing reflects the rapidly changing field of technology in second language learning and highlights technological advances across different areas relevant to L2 writing. Composed of empirical studies, reviews, and descriptive essays, this book covers a variety of topics across the areas of composing, pedagogy, and writing research. It includes discussion of computer-mediated communication, language learners’ perceptions about using technology in their writing, the use of social media in writing, corpus learning, translation software, and use of electronic feedback in language classrooms. Offering a multifaceted approach to technology in a wide variety of second language writing contexts, this cutting-edge book serves as essential reading for scholars and postgraduate students in the field of language teaching, applied linguistics, and TESOL.
Technology in Social Work Education and Curriculum: The High Tech, High Touch Social Work Educator
by Florence W Vigilante Richard L Beaulaurier Martha F HaffeySave time and trouble as you incorporate technology into your social work curriculumThe dramatic increase in the use of computers and other forms of technology in social work education and practice has educators, trainers, and administrators investing valuable time, money, and effort into trying to make the transition from traditional teaching to a Web-assisted learning environment. Technology in Social Work Education and Curriculum takes the mystery out of the online experience with practical information on using technology to enhance and enrich learning-but not at the expense of the "human" approach to social work. This unique book presents a variety of creative and interesting methods for incorporating technology that&’s affordable and user-friendly, and for developing online skills that won&’t become obsolete as computer hardware and software evolves.Technology in Social Work Education and Curriculum transforms technology into an everyday resource for agency field instructors, human service educators, trainers, and social work administrators. The book addresses concerns that educators with limited technical skills may have in using technology to teach cultural competency, group work, research, direct practice, social policy and advocacy, and field practicum, presenting hands-on approaches that are innovative but accessible. And by focusing on approaches rather than simply reviewing available hardware and software, the book provides you with background knowledge that makes it easier for you to successfully incorporate online learning into the classroom. Technology in Social Work Education and Curriculum examines using instructional technology to emotionally engage students in the learning process using digital video and qualitative data analysis software to teach group practice the role technology plays in advocacy distance-education technologies in policy education incorporating Web-assisted learning into a traditional classroom setting the advantages of distance education over more conventional approaches a model for planning the use and integration of computer technology in schools of social work how the behaviors of computer consultants can affect the students who seek their help using innovation diffusion theory in technology planning and much more!Social workers have traditionally embraced the latest technologies and scientific developments since the earliest days of the profession. Technology in Social Work Education and Curriculum helps continue that tradition, offering invaluable guidance to educators and administrators, no matter how experienced-or inexperienced-they are in dealing with communications technologies.
Technology in the Middle and Secondary Social Studies Classroom
by Scott ScheuerellTechnology in the Middle and Secondary Social Studies Classroom introduces pre-service teachers to the research underpinning the effective integration of technology into the social studies curriculum. Building off of established theoretical frameworks, veteran social studies teacher educator Scott Scheuerell shows how the implementation of key technologies in the classroom can help foster higher-level thinking among students. Plentiful, user-friendly examples illustrate how specific educational tools—including games, social media, flipped classrooms, and other emerging technologies—spur critical thinking and foster authentic intellectual work. A rigorous study, Technology in the Middle and Secondary Social Studies Classroom provides a comprehensive, up-to-date research framework for conceptualizing successful, technology-rich social studies classrooms.
Technology to Support Children's Collaborative Interactions: Close Encounters of the Shared Kind
by Nicola YuillThis book explores how technology can foster interaction between children and their peers, teachers and other adults. It presents the Co-EnACT framework to explain how technology can support children to collaborate, so helping them to learn and engage enjoyably with the world, in both work and play. The focus is on children, rather than young people, but the principles of supporting interaction apply throughout all life stages. Chapters on classrooms and on autism explain principles behind using technology in ways that support, rather than obstruct, social interaction in diverse populations. Collaborative interaction involves both verbal and non-verbal behaviour and this book presents evidence from closely analysing children’s behaviour in natural settings. Examples from cutting-edge technology illustrate principles applicable to more widely-available technology. The book will be of interest to psychologists, educators, researchers in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI), particularly those designing with children in mind, and practitioners working with children who want to deepen their understanding of using technology for collaboration.
Technology's Child: Digital Media’s Role in the Ages and Stages of Growing Up
by Katie DavisHow children engage with technology at each stage of development, from toddler to twentysomething, and how they can best be supported.What happens to the little ones, the tweens, and the teenagers, when technology—ubiquitous in the world they inhabit—becomes a critical part of their lives? This timely book brings much-needed clarity to what we know about technology&’s role in child development. Better yet, it provides guidance on how to use what we know to help children of all ages make the most of their digital experiences. From toddlers who are exploring their immediate environment to twentysomethings who are exploring their place in society, technology inevitably and profoundly affects their development. Drawing on her expertise in developmental science and design research, Katie Davis describes what happens when child development and technology design interact, and how this interaction is complicated by children&’s individual characteristics and social and cultural contexts. Critically, she explains how a self-directed experience of technology—one initiated, sustained, and ended voluntarily—supports healthy child development, especially when it takes place within the context of community support. Children&’s experiences with technology—their &“screen time&” and digital social relationships—have become an inescapable aspect of growing up. This book, for the first time, identifies the qualitative distinctions between different ages and stages of this engagement, and offers invaluable guidance for parents and teachers navigating the digital landscape, and for technology designers charting the way.
Technology, Institutions and Labor: Manufacturing Automobiles In Argentina And Turkey (International Political Economy Ser)
by Fulya ApaydinIn this book Fulya Apaydin argues that labor responses to dramatic technological change are influenced by the political institutions of the Global South more than any other factor. In addressing vocational education programs – which are highly relevant in understanding how labor unrest is governed in developing settings – she makes two important contributions. Firstly, she offers a new theoretical framework to understand labor mobilization and de-mobilization patterns, rethinking vocational education as a key transmission belt for manufacturing labor consent. Secondly, she provides a systematic comparison of skill formation schemes and their implications on labor mobilization in federal and unitary systems. With a focus on Argentina and Turkey, two case studies are provided in which technology has provoked differing levels of strikes, walkouts and extended protest.
Technology, Legal Education and Legal Profession in China and Australia: Opportunities and Challenges (International and Comparative Law in the Asia Pacific)
by Peng Guo Shu Zhang Jie LuoThis book adopts a comparative and empirical approach to the discussion relating to the subject matter. The book compares various selected topics in both China and Australia, drawing attention to historical, contemporary, and international characteristics. Also, in discussing the topics, the authors will conduct surveys and interviews to get first-hand materials and describe the real situations in both countries. To the best knowledge of the authors, this is the first time that this approach has been adopted to compare legal education and the legal profession focusing on China and Australia. This book introduces legal education and the legal profession in China and Australia to lay a foundation based on which it further compares them. More importantly, this book discusses some selected topics relating to legal education and the legal profession in the context of globalization, the digital age, and COVID-19. The intended readership is an international audience including students at both undergraduate and graduate levels, legal scholars, and legal practitioners in general, and those in China and Australia in particular. This book intends to analyse the discourse of legal education and identify and create innovative ways of teaching and learning the law in China and Australia. It focuses on research, theory, and practice within legal education and the legal profession based on imaginative and sophisticated educational thinking from an empirical and comparative perspective. It also takes a broad view of theory and practice relating to legal education and the legal profession. It is sensitive to the diversity of contexts in which law is taught, learned, and practised.
Technology, Literacy, Learning: A Multimodal Approach
by Carey JewittWith the recent explosion of technology into the world of education across the globe, this book sets out a framework for rethinking the three key areas of schooling that are most affected by technology's impact on education today: knowledge as curriculum; learning and pedagogy and literacy across the curriculum. A well-known author in this field, Jewitt takes the reader through an analysis of teaching and learning with materials such as CD-ROMs, websites, the Internet, computer programming applications and computer games, relating each in turn to the main curriculum topics. Through this detailed scrutiny the following questions emerge: How do the new technologies reshape knowledge as curriculum? How does the use of new technologies in the classroom reshape learning pedagogy? As writing moves from page to screen, what is the impact on students' situated literacy practices and how does it effect learning? Through these questions, this book demonstrates that mode, technology and curriculum knowledge are fundamentally connected and describes how teacher and student roles in the classroom could be altered in the face of new technologies.
Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society: Implications of the Work of Jack Goody
by David R. Olson Michael ColeInspired by the seminal work of Jack Goody, a historical anthropologist specializing in the study of social structure and change, Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society gathers diverse perspectives of 20 distinguished historians, anthropologists, psychologists, and educators to address the role of technologies in social stability and change in traditional and modern societies. In this interdisciplinary text, scholars examine the ways in which local languages and cultural traditions, modes of production and communication, patterns of local knowledge and authority affect how people and cultures resist or accommodate demands for such change. With work from acclaimed contributors, this pioneering volume is the first analysis of the influence of Jack Goody. It provides a thorough look at the relations between societies of different practices, customs, and values, determining the mechanisms behind sociocultural stability and change. Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society is intended for graduate students and academics in history, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and education, as well as academics and all others interested in pursuing the directions and implications of the work and influence of Jack Goody.
Technology, Multimodality and Learning: Analyzing Meaning across Scales (Palgrave Studies in Educational Media)
by Germán CanaleThis book introduces multimodality and technology as key concepts for understanding learning in the 21st century. The author investigates how a nationwide socio-educational policy in Uruguay becomes recontextualised across time/space scales, impacting interaction and learning in an English as a Foreign Language classroom. The book introduces scalar analysis to better understand the situated and fractal nature of education policy as meaning-making, subsequently defining learning from a multimodal socio-semiotic approach. The analytical integration of different policy scales shows what policy means to various stakeholders, and what learning means for students and teachers. This depends both on how they position themselves and how they engage with the policy educational media. This innovative book will appeal to students and scholars of technology and learning, as well as multimodality.
Technology, Research and Professional Learning: Constructing Intellectual Exchange in the Rise of Network Society (Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education)
by Jingjing ZhangThis book investigates the use of network technologies in research, and explores how such use potentially changes the nature of professional learning between academics. It attempts to situate the discussion of technology use in real-world research settings, to identify the different forms of participation in intellectual exchange embedded in academic dialogue, and to further contribute to knowledge on how the use of network technology potentially changes the nature of learning. Multiple data collection methods are employed, in two forms of study: a single case study, and a number of individual interviews. The single case study was carried out over a one-year period, and consisted of interviews (22 interviewees), observations, and document review. Individual semi-structured interviews were carried out over a similar period of time with a wider and different population of 24 academics from different Oxford faculties. Half of these were interviewed twice.The main findings presented in this book demonstrate that the direct consequences of technology use are changes to academic dialogue and scholarly communication in general. The change to this critical aspect of research – scholarly communication – has potentially led to more distributed research in interconnected research environments. It is the changes to scholarly communication and the research environment that consequently affect participation in intellectual exchange.
Technology, Theory, and Practice in Interdisciplinary STEM Programs
by Reneta D. LansiquotThis book highlights models for promoting interdisciplinary thinking and an appreciation for interdisciplinary understanding among students in STEM-related fields. Studentsmajoring in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics often perceivethat courses in their major are not related to the general education liberalarts courses required for their degrees. This separation prevents the transfer of skills between their generaleducation courses and their degree pursuits. The false dichotomy is particularlyimportant because solving the daunting challenges of the twenty-firstcentury--such as drug-resistant bacteria, scarcity of natural resources, andclimate change--requires global citizens armed with robust, complex abilitieswho can integrate interdisciplinary concepts with bold technologies. Contributors to this book explore ways in which this dichotomy can be overcome.
Technology, e-learning and Distance Education (Routledge Studies in Distance Education)
by A.W. (Tony) BatesAward-winning in its first edition, this book is an essential guide to the use of technology in flexible and distance learning, weighing up the pros and cons of different media. Fully updated, this second edition: examines criteria and guidelines for the design and delivery of effective teaching, using modern learning technologies focuses on the use of the Internet for distance and flexible education considers the design and use of emerging technologies such as web-based video-conferencing and speech recognition places emphasis on organisational and management issues and how these influence the effective use of technology gives attention to the integration of online teaching with campus-based face-to-face teaching. With a focus on basic principles and general guidelines this guidance applies to existing and emerging technologies. It is essential reading not just for those specialising in flexible and distance learning and distance education, but anyone concerned with the integration of technology with teaching.
Technology-Assisted Delivery of School Based Mental Health Services: Defining School Social Work for the 21st Century
by Bhavna PahwaLearn how computer technology is helping school social workers collect information and synthesize it into meaningful data! Technology-Assisted Delivery of School Based Mental Health Services: Defining School Social Work for the 21st Century explores the many technological advances in school social work practices. This book also illustrates the ways technology is being used to manage and evaluate services provided by school social workers. This vital book contains: ways to use new technology to prevent and treat mental health issues in children through safe and effective learning experiences information on how biofeedback can be used to empower children to become more aware of their physical and emotional reactions to environmental stimuli an annotated bibliography of Internet sites covering topics and issues frequently encountered by social workers examinations of exciting software applications, including BARN, From Mad to Worse, Conflict Management, and Smart Team methods of online data collection for use in school social work practices and more!
Technology-Assisted Language Assessment in Diverse Contexts: Lessons from the Transition to Online Testing during COVID-19 (Routledge Research in Language Education)
by Karim SadeghiThis timely collection explores the role of digital technology in language education and assessment during the COVID-19 pandemic. It recognises the unique pressures which the COVID-19 pandemic placed on assessment in language education, and examines the forced shift in assessment strategies to go online, the existing shortfalls, as well as unique affordances of technology-assisted L2 assessment. By showcasing international examples of successful digital and computer-assisted proficiency and skills testing, the volume addresses theoretical and practical concerns relating to test validity, reliability, ethics, and student experience in a range of testing contexts. Particular attention is given to identifying lessons and implications for future research and practice, and the challenges of implementing unplanned computer-assisted language assessment during a crisis. Insightfully unpacking the ‘lessons learned’ from COVID and its impact on the acceleration of the shift towards online course and assessment delivery, it offers important guidelines for navigating assessment in different instructional settings in times of crisis. It will appeal to scholars, researchers, educators, and faculty with interests in educational measurement, digital education and technology, and language assessment and testing.
Technology-Based Teaching and Learning in Pakistani English Language Classrooms (Advances in Digital Technologies for Smart Applications)
by Muhammad Mooneeb AliPakistan is the sixth most populous country in the world. Unexpectedly, the education system in Pakistan is quite orthodox in teaching and learning. There are numerous educational institutes in Pakistan but they are rigorously following conventions. There are problems with infrastructure, and in some areas, the basic facilities are also not there. Sometimes the classrooms are overpopulated, and sometimes there are places where no teacher is available to teach the students. There are instances where the basic infrastructure is not complete and there are no proper classrooms for teaching and learning. All these factors are causing a lot of problems for learners to compete in the modern world. English enjoys the status of official language in the country but, surprisingly, learning English is a troublesome area. There are problems not only in basic English language learning but also many second language learners face problems when they appear in international tests and competitive examinations. English language classrooms are usually boring and uninteresting. Therefore, this book is written with an aim to provide alternative solutions to the conventional methods by integrating modern technology tools in Pakistani classrooms. The scope of this book is widened for language researchers, policymakers, readers and administrators of the government to analyse some of the problems and issues mentioned in this book and develop a roadmap for better education.Some of the key elements of this book are as follows: This is the first research-based book to explore some of the latest research tools in Pakistani classrooms This book is based on research-based chapters Shows pictures of local English language classrooms Provides insights and practices for integrating modern methods in English language classrooms
Technology-Enabled Innovations in Education: Select Proceedings of CIIE 2020 (Transactions on Computer Systems and Networks)
by Samira Hosseini Diego Hernan Peluffo Julius Nganji Arturo Arrona-PalaciosThis book contains peer-reviewed selected papers of the 7th International Conference on Educational Innovation (CIIE 2020). It presents excellent educational practices and technologies complemented by various innovative approaches that enhance educational outcomes. In line with the Sustainable Development Goal 4 of UNESCO in the 2030 agenda, CIIE 2020 has attempted to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” The CIIE 2020 proceeding offers diverse dissemination of innovations, knowledge, and lessons learned to familiarize readership with new pedagogical-oriented, technology-driven educational strategies along with their applications to emphasize their impact on a large spectrum of stakeholders including students, teachers and professors, administrators, policymakers, entrepreneurs, governments, international organizations, and NGOs.
Technology-Enabled Learning and Design Methodologies: Lessons from Creative, Agile, Immersive, and Analytical Advancements
by Andrea Filatro Carolina Costa CavalcantiTechnology-Enabled Learning and Design Methodologies offers a comprehensive and example-rich guide to the latest technological and methodological advancements in education. This book systematically organizes a rich variety of educational innovations into four distinct groups of teaching-learning methodologies, each with its own focus and disruptive potential:· Creative methodologies, centered on student protagonism and creativity, which shift the traditional roles in the teaching-learning process, empowering students to take an active, leading role in their education and encouraging creative thinking and expression.· Agile methodologies, focused on time management and adaptability, which optimize students’ time and attention through microlearning and other bite-sized content, activities, and assessments.· Immersive methodologies, driven by simulated real-world scenarios, which blur the boundaries between learning environments and real-life contexts in order to immerse learners in challenging, story-driven environments linked to clear learning objectives.· Analytical methodologies, based on computation power, which support personalized, adaptive, and evidence-based teaching and learning by collecting and processing student data.Through a practical, dialogical approach, filled with visual resources and real-world examples, the authors provide solid theoretical foundations for their methodologies of focus, positioning them within a broader spectrum that goes beyond mere consumption of isolated techniques or technologies. This will be a relevant resource for current and aspiring instructional designers, educational technologists, subject matter experts, teaching faculty, researchers, and other stakeholders involved in face-to-face, distance, or hybrid education.
Technology-Enhanced Language Learning for Specialized Domains: Practical applications and mobility (Routledge Research in Education)
by Izaskun Elorza Blanca García Riaza Elena Martín-MonjeTechnology-Enhanced Language Learning for Specialized Domains provides an exploration of the latest developments in technology-enhanced learning and the processing of languages for specific purposes. It combines theoretical and applied research from an interdisciplinary angle, covering general issues related to learning languages with computers, assessment, mobile-assisted language learning, the new language massive open online courses, corpus-based research and computer-assisted aspects of translation. The chapters in this collection include contributions from a number of international experts in the field with a wide range of experience in the use of technologies to enhance the language learning process. The essays have been brought together precisely in recognition of the demand for this kind of specialised tuition, offering state-of-the-art technological and methodological innovation and practical applications. The topics covered revolve around the practical consequences of the current possibilites of mobility for both learners and teachers, as well as the applicability of updated technological advances to language learning and teaching, particularly in specialized domains. This is achieved through the description and discussion of practical examples of those applications in a variety of educational contexts. At the beginning of each thematic section, readers will find an introductory chapter which contextualises the topic and links the different examples discussed. Drawing together rich primary research and empirical studies related to specialized tuition and the processing of languages, Technology-Enhanced Language Learning for Specialized Domains will be an invaluable resource for academics, researchers and postgraduate students in the fields of education, computer assisted language learning, languages and linguistics, and language teaching.
Technology-Enhanced Learning and the Virtual University (University Development and Administration)
by Henk Huijser Michael David Sankey Rachel FitzgeraldSince the first works on Higher Education Administration in the 1970s no comprehensive work in terms of purpose and scope of Higher Education has been published. There have been important changes in people’s aspirations vis-à-vis higher education globally. In parallel, the higher education systems, worldwide, have been undergoing constant transformation in response to these aspirations. From governments, employers and prospective students and their parents, the stakeholders in higher education system are now extremely varied paying close attention to the various aspects of higher education - from infrastructure, on-campus safety and security to administration, faculty and curricula. The present series attempts to take into account the issues of importance to all the stakeholders. Hence the series not only pays attention to the purpose and outcomes of higher education but also the economics surrounding higher education vis a vis marketization. The nitty gritty of running and maintaining a university infrastructure, impact of globalization and internationalization on delivery and demand of higher education, the commoditization of research, and changing paradigms of teaching and learning fall within the purview of the series. The increasing competition from other entities to provide degrees, certificates or other forms of credentials makes it important to have a work that brings all of the elements together to see how they actually interact and inter-relate from a systems perspective. The present series attempts to comprehensively attend to these issues and provide a complete reference resource to all those involved and interested in setting up of a Higher Education institution and its administration.
Technology-Enhanced Learning for a Free, Safe, and Sustainable World: 16th European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning, EC-TEL 2021, Bolzano, Italy, September 20-24, 2021, Proceedings (Lecture Notes in Computer Science #12884)
by Carlos Alario-Hoyos Roland Klemke Tinne De Laet Isabel Hilliger Alejandro Ortega-ArranzThis book constitutes the proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning, EC-TEL 2021, held in Bolzano, Italy, in September 2021. The 21 research full papers and 28 short papers presented in this volume were carefully reviewed and selected from 98 submissions. The European Conference on Technology-Enhance Learning, is committed to address global challenges and quality education. The papers deal with the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 4 and SDG 10, to help to reduce the existing gaps and inequalities between countries and regions from around the world in terms of inclusiveness, equity, access, and quality of education.
Technology-Enhanced Professional Learning: Processes, Practices, and Tools (Advancing Technology Enhanced Learning)
by Allison Littlejohn Anoush MargaryanTechnology-Enhanced Professional Learning addresses the need for continuous workplace learning that derives from the emergence of new, specialized, and constantly changing work practices. While continuous learning is fundamental to enabling individuals to function in and productively shape contemporary workplaces, digital technology is increasingly central to productive workplace practice. By examining the intersection of human learning processes, emergent work practices, and patterns of use of digital technology to support learning and work, this edited collection brings the disparate fields of professional learning and technology-enhanced learning together to advance theory and practice in both realms.