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Jet Wars in the Nuclear Age: 1972 to the Present Day
by Martin W. BowmanThis book explores the era of the 1970s right up to the present day, illustrating howfighter-bombers and tactics have developed and evolved during this time. It covers all the most significant military conflicts that have characterised this era, including the Eleven Day War of Christmas 1972 in Vietnam and the Falklands War of 1982, when Harrier pilots engaged in aerial battles with Skyhawks and when Vulcans, supported by Victor tankers, flew 'Black Buck' raids on Argentine positions. It also explores the era of the Gulf War, which witnessed the Victor and the B-52 fighting alongside Buccaneers, Tornadoes and F-111s.Then there is the ongoing war against terror, culminating in the opening stages of 'Inherent Resolve' which has seen Tornadoes, F/A-18 Hornets, Soviet-built Su-24M2 and Su-30CM jet fighters, Su-25 SM armoured subsonic close air support/attack aircraft, Su-34 multi-role fighter/bombers and the Tupolev Tu-160 'Blackjack' heavy strategic bombers employed in the war against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.The author's well-researched historical narrative sets a range of dramatic first-hand crew-member accounts solidly in context, creating a rounded and authentic sense of events as they played out during five dynamic decades of aviation history.
Jet Web: CONNECTIONS in the Development History of Turbojet Engines 1920 - 1950
by Dietrich EckardtThe present book describes the development history of turbojet engines, mainly in the web-type triangle Great Britain (USA) - Germany - Switzerland from early beginnings in the 1920s up to the first practical usage in the 1950s, before the still unbroken, grand impact of aero propulsion technology on global air traffic started. interconnections are highlighted, including the considerable impact of axial-flow compressor design know-how of the Swiss/German company BBC Brown Boveri & Cie. on both sides.The author reveals significant undercurrents which led to a considerable exchange, and thus change in understanding of the technical-historical perspective, especially in the decisive years before WWII, and thus closes gaps in the unilateral views of this ground-breaking technical advancement. The old ‘Whittle vs. von Ohain Saga’ is not repeated in full, but addressed in sufficient detail to understand the considerably enlarged narrative scope.
Jet Web: Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Turbojet-Triebwerke 1920-1950
by Dietrich EckardtDas vorliegende Buch beschreibt die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Turbo-Luftstrahltriebwerke, hauptsächlich im Beziehungsdreieck Großbritannien (USA) – Deutschland – Schweiz von frühen Anfängen in den 1920er Jahren bis zu ersten zivilen Anwendungen in den späten 1950er Jahren, ehe der bis heute anhaltende Siegeszug des Welt-Luftverkehrs begann. Unerwartete Verbindungen werden hervorgehoben, insbesondere der beträchtliche Einfluss der Axialverdichter-Technologie des schweizerisch-deutschen Unternehmens BBC Brown Boveri & Cie. auf die beiden anderen Seiten.Der Autor deckt wichtige Beziehungen und Abhängigkeiten auf, die einen erheb-lichen technischen Austausch förderten, und daher zu einer Änderung der bisherigen technisch-historischen Betrachtungsweise führen müssen, insbesondere in den entscheidenden Jahren vor Beginn des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Damit werden bestehende Lücken in der bisher allzu einseitigen Sicht auf diesen technisch herausragenden Entwicklungsfortschritt geschlossen. Die überlieferte ‚Whittle vs. von Ohain Saga‘ wird nicht in Gänze wiederholt, aber insoweit angesprochen, wie es zum Verständnis des nunmehr erheblich erweiterten Geschichtsbilds erforderlich ist.
Jets at Sea: Naval Aviation in Transition, 1945–55
by Leo MarriottAs World War Two drew to a close, jet-powered aircraft were beginning to be introduced into service. To take advantage of this major development it was necessary for all the worlds air powers to rethink combat tactics and develop the means of handling these faster and generally larger aircraft in the air, on land and especially at sea. As this modern breed approached and finally broke the sound barrier, so did landing and takeoff speeds. The decade after the war saw rapid developments in the design of both naval aircraft and their seaborne bases the aircraft carrier. The first jet to land aboard a carrier was a modified de Havilland Vampire in 1945 on H.M.S. Ocean. Progress was rapid and the application of British inventions such as the angled flight-deck, steam catapult and mirror landing sight soon became adopted by the major navies of the world. Naval aircraft too became more sophisticated by the addition of high-lift flap systems and strengthened undercarriages to allow them to operate more safely at sea. The author describes the development of these improvements and then their operational advantages in the Korean War and Suez. He goes on to describe the US development of a potential nuclear carrier-borne bomber, the French Navy and its withdrawal from Vietnam in 1954 and then the use of naval aircraft for anti-submarine work.
Jew
by Cynthia M. BakerJew. The word possesses an uncanny power to provoke and unsettle. For millennia, Jew has signified the consummate Other, a persistent fly in the ointment of Western civilization’s grand narratives and cultural projects. Only very recently, however, has Jew been reclaimed as a term of self-identification and pride. With these insights as a point of departure, this book offers a wide-ranging exploration of the key word Jew—a term that lies not only at the heart of Jewish experience, but indeed at the core of Western civilization. Examining scholarly debates about the origins and early meanings of Jew, Cynthia M. Baker interrogates categories like “ethnicity,” “race,” and “religion” that inevitably feature in attempts to define the word. Tracing the term’s evolution, she also illuminates its many contradictions, revealing how Jew has served as a marker of materialism and intellectualism, socialism and capitalism, worldly cosmopolitanism and clannish parochialism, chosen status, and accursed stigma. Baker proceeds to explore the complex challenges that attend the modern appropriation of Jew as a term of self-identification, with forays into Yiddish language and culture, as well as meditations on Jew-as-identity by contemporary public intellectuals. Finally, by tracing the phrase new Jews through a range of contexts—including the early Zionist movement, current debates about Muslim immigration to Europe, and recent sociological studies in the United States—the book provides a glimpse of what the word Jew is coming to mean in an era of Internet cultures, genetic sequencing, precarious nationalisms, and proliferating identities.
Jew Boy: A Memoir
by Alan KaufmanJew Boy is Alan Kaufman's riveting memoir of being raised by a Jewish mother who survived the Holocaust. This pioneering masterpiece, the very first memoir of its kind by a member of the Second Generation is Kaufman's coming-of-age account, by turns hilarious and terrifying, written with irreverent humor and poetic introspection. Throughout the course of his memoir, Kaufman touches on the pain, guilt, and confusion that shape the lives and characters of American-born children of Holocaust survivors. Kaufman struggles to comprehend what it means to be Jewish as he deals with the demons haunting his mother and attempts to escape his wretched home life by devoting himself to high school football. He eventually hitchhikes across the country, coming face-to-face with the phantoms he fled. Taking us from the streets of the Bronx to the highways of America, the kibbutzim and Israeli army to personal rebirth in San Francisco, and finally to a final reckoning in Germany, Jew Boy shines with the universal humanity of a brilliant writer embracing the gift of life. Kaufman's fierce passion will leave no reader untouched.
Jew Vs. Jew: The Struggle for the Soul of American Jewry
by Samuel G. FreedmanAt a time when American Jews should feel more secure and cohesive than ever, civil war is tearing apart their community. Congregations, neighborhoods, even families are taking sides in battles about Jewish identity and Jewish authenticity.
Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian
by Louis H. FeldmanRelations between Jews and non-Jews in the Hellenistic-Roman period were marked by suspicion and hate, maintain most studies of that topic. But if such conjectures are true, asks Louis Feldman, how did Jews succeed in winning so many adherents, whether full-fledged proselytes or "sympathizers" who adopted one or more Jewish practices? Systematically evaluating attitudes toward Jews from the time of Alexander the Great to the fifth century A.D., Feldman finds that Judaism elicited strongly positive and not merely unfavorable responses from the non-Jewish population. Jews were a vigorous presence in the ancient world, and Judaism was strengthened substantially by the development of the Talmud. Although Jews in the Diaspora were deeply Hellenized, those who remained in Israel were able to resist the cultural inroads of Hellenism and even to initiate intellectual counterattacks. Feldman draws on a wide variety of material, from Philo, Josephus, and other Graeco-Jewish writers through the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha, the Church Councils, Church Fathers, and imperial decrees to Talmudic and Midrashic writings and inscriptions and papyri. What emerges is a rich description of a long era to which conceptions of Jewish history as uninterrupted weakness and suffering do not apply.
Jewel
by Beverly JenkinsA proposal she had no choice but to accept . . . Though Eli Grayson is one of the most handsome, charming, and intelligent men in Grayson Grove, no one will take a chance on a confirmed bachelor. Unwilling to give up his dreams, Eli convinces his friend Jewel to pose as his wife. Their masquerade is to last just one night . . . but when word gets out, Eli and Jewel must tie the knot to save his career-and her reputation. Became a love she never expected . . . Angry at being forced to turn her life upside down, Jewel never imagined that a white-hot passion would consume her once she and Eli became husband and wife. Sharing a bed has turned their prim friendship into a sensuous love affair . . . but when a woman from Eli's past returns to stir up trouble, he and Jewel will learn just how far they'll go to protect the precious gem of their newfound passion.
Jewel of the Desert: Japanese American Internment at Topaz
by Sandra C. TaylorAt the outbreak of World War II, the Japanese Americans who lived in the San Francisco Bay Area were sent to "relocation camps," chiefly to Topaz in the Utah desert. This book, based on interviews and extensive historical research, is a vivid account of the lives of the people who were forcibly confined at Topaz. The book also examines how the internment experience affected these people in the decades after the war. Other books in this subject area are available from Bookshare.
Jewels: A Secret History
by Victoria FinlayThroughout history the desire for jewels has made and destroyed individual, families and even empires. Today, despite our ability to manufacture synthetics, gemstones still hold their appeal. Victoria Finlay investigates why in her extraordinary journey to uncover the hidden world of precious stones. The starting point is a sapphire given to her by her parents that was harvested, not by a miner as she had imagined but by men in muddy loincloths trawling a warm stream in Sri Lanka. The extraordinary travels in JEWELS: A SECRET HISTORY take her cycling along the Baltic Amber Route, down the emerald mines of Afghanistan. As we learn from a ruby trader in Burma, the more precious a jewel, the greater the human cost of acquiring it, and JEWELS: A SECRET HISTORY also explores the human histories of gemstones. Along the way we learn from Victoria, a qualified gemologist, how to grade a pearl, what New Age 'crystal therapy' is about, and why one of the rarest sapphires in the world is orange. Victoria Finlay's unique blending of travelogue and narrative history ensures that this book, the first for the general reader, will be as unforgettable as the stones themselves.
Jewish Agricultural Utopias in America, 1880-1910
by Uri D HerscherBrook Farm, Oneida, Amana, and Nauvoo are familiar names in American history. Far less familiar are New Odessa, Bethlehem-Jehudah, Cotopaxi, and Alliance-the Brook Farms and Oneidas of the Jewish people in North America. <P><P> The wealthy, westernized leaders of late nineteenth-century American Jewry and a member of the immigrating Russian Jews shared an eagerness to "repeal" the lengthy socioeconomic history in which European Jews were confined to petty commerce and denied agricultural experience. A small group of immigrant Jews chose to ignore urbanization and industrialization, defy the depression afflicting agriculture in the late 1800s, and devote themselves to experiments in collective farming in America. <P><P> Some of these idealists were pious; others were agnostics or atheists. Some had the support of American and West European philanthropists; others were willing to go it alone. But in the farming colonies they founded in Oregon, Colorado, the Dakotas, Michigan, Louisiana, Arkansas, Virginia, and New Jersey, among other places, they were sublimely indifferent to the need for careful planning and thus had limited success. Only in New Jersey, close to markets and supporters in New York and Philadelphia, were colonization efforts combined with agro-industrial enterprises; consequently, these colonies were able to survive for as long as one generation.
Jewish Albuquerque: 1860-1960 (Images of America)
by Dr Noel Pugach Naomi SandweissAlbuquerque, founded by Spanish colonists in 1706, seems an unusual place for Jewish immigrants to settle. Yet long before New Mexico statehood in 1912, Jewish settlers had made their homes in the high desert town, located on the banks of the Rio Grande River. Initially, business opportunities lured German Jews to the Santa Fe Trail; during the expansive railroad days of the 1880s, Jewish citizens were poised to take on leadership roles in business, government, and community life. Henry Jaffa, a Jewish merchant and acquaintance of Wyatt Earp, served as Albuquerque's first mayor. From launching businesses along Central Avenue, to establishing the Indian Trading Room at the famed Alvarado Hotel and founding trading posts, Route 66 tourist establishments, and the Sandia Tram, Jewish businesspeople partnered with their neighbors to boost Albuquerque's already plentiful assets. Along the way, community members built Jewish organizations--a B'nai B'rith chapter, Congregation Albert, and Congregation B'nai Israel--that made their mark upon the larger Albuquerque community.
Jewish American Identity and Erasure in Pop Art (Routledge Research in Art History)
by Melissa L. MednicovThis volume focuses on Jewish American identity within the context of Pop art in New York City during the sixties to reveal the multivalent identities and selves often ignored in Pop scholarship. Melissa L. Mednicov establishes her study within the context of prominent Jewish artists, dealers, institutions, and collectors in New York City in the Pop sixties. Mednicov incorporates the historiography of Jewish identity in Pop art—the ways by which identity is named or silenced—to better understand how Pop art made, or marked, different modes of identity in the sixties. By looking at a nexus of the art world in this period and the ways in which Jewish identity was registered or negated, Mednicov is able to further consider questions about the ways mass culture influenced Pop art and its participants—and, to a larger extent, formed further modes of identity.The book will be of interest to scholars working in art history, Jewish studies, and American studies.
Jewish Ann Arbor (Images of America)
by Richard Adler Ruth AdlerThe earliest Jewish settlers arrived in Michigan during the mid-18th century. Primarily traders associated with the burgeoning fur industry, few of these entrepreneurs remained permanently. During the early 1840s, the five Weilbrothers, farmers and tanners from Germany, became the first prominent Jewish settlers in Washtenaw County. By the end of that decade, a Jewish cemetery was established on what is now the site of the Horace Rackham Building on the University of Michigan campus. Though the Weil familyeventually moved west, the cemetery remained as a marker for what was then a miniscule Jewish presence. In the early 20th century, Osias Zwerdling and the Lansky family arrived. In addition to reestablishing a Jewish presence in Ann Arbor, they helped form what became Beth Israel Congregation. Growth of the Ann Arbor Jewish community coincided with the evolution of the university, as well as the city. By the end of the 20th century, a vibrant community representing all facets of Judaism had been established.
Jewish Antifascism and the False Promise of Settler Colonialism
by Max KaiserThis book takes a timely look at histories of radical Jewish movements, their modes of Holocaust memorialisation, and their relationships with broader anti-colonial and anti-racist struggles. Its primary focus is Australia, where Jewish antifascism was a major political and cultural force in Jewish communities in the 1940s and early 1950s. This cultural and intellectual history of Jewish antifascism utilises a transnational lens to provide an exploration of a Jewish antifascist ideology that took hold in the middle of the twentieth century across Jewish communities worldwide. It argues that Jewish antifascism offered an alternate path for Jewish politics that was foreclosed by mutually reinforcing ideologies of settler colonialism, both in Palestine and Australia.
Jewish Art in Nazi Germany: The Jewish Cultural League in Bavaria (Routledge Studies in Second World War History)
by Dana SmithThis book provides a social and cultural history of Jewish art in Nazi Germany, with a focus on the Jewish artists, art critics, and audiences in Nazi Bavaria. From the time of its conceptualization in the autumn of 1933 until its final curtain call in November 1938, the Jewish Cultural League in Bavaria sustained three departments: music, visual arts, and adult education. The Bavarian example steps outside the highly professional cultural milieu of Jewish Berlin, and instead looks at relatively unknown efforts of Bavarian Jewish artists as they used art to define what it now meant, to them, to be Jewish under Nazism. Insightful and engaging, this book is ideal for advanced undergraduate students, graduate students, and scholars interested in social and cultural histories of Jews in Germany.
Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651-1825 (The Early Modern Americas)
by Aviva Ben-UrA fascinating portrait of Jewish life in Suriname from the 17th to 19th centuriesJewish Autonomy in a Slave Society explores the political and social history of the Jews of Suriname, a Dutch colony on the South American mainland just north of Brazil. Suriname was home to the most privileged Jewish community in the Americas where Jews, most of Iberian origin, enjoyed religious liberty, were judged by their own tribunal, could enter any trade, owned plantations and slaves, and even had a say in colonial governance.Aviva Ben-Ur sets the story of Suriname's Jews in the larger context of Atlantic slavery and colonialism and argues that, like other frontier settlements, they achieved and maintained their autonomy through continual negotiation with the colonial government. Drawing on sources in Dutch, English, French, Hebrew, Portuguese, and Spanish, Ben-Ur shows how, from their first permanent settlement in the 1660s to the abolition of their communal autonomy in 1825, Suriname Jews enjoyed virtually the same standing as the ruling white Protestants, with whom they interacted regularly. She also examines the nature of Jewish interactions with enslaved and free people of African descent in the colony. Jews admitted both groups into their community, and Ben-Ur illuminates the ways in which these converts and their descendants experienced Jewishness and autonomy. Lastly, she compares the Jewish settlement with other frontier communities in Suriname, most notably those of Indians and Maroons, to measure the success of their negotiations with the government for communal autonomy. The Jewish experience in Suriname was marked by unparalleled autonomy that nevertheless developed in one of the largest slave colonies in the New World.
Jewish Backgrounds of the New Testament
by Jr. J. Julius ScottThis survey of intertestamental Judaism illuminates the customs and controversies that provide essential background for understanding the New Testament. Scott opens a door into the Jewish world and literature leading up to the development of Christianity. He also offers an accessible overview of the data through helpful charts, maps, and diagrams incorporated throughout the text to engage his readers.
Jewish Bible Translations: Personalities, Passions, Politics, Progress
by Leonard GreenspoonJewish Bible Translations is the first book to examine Jewish Bible translations from the third century BCE to our day. It is an overdue corrective of an important story that has been regularly omitted or downgraded in other histories of Bible translation. Examining a wide range of translations over twenty-four centuries, Leonard Greenspoon delves into the historical, cultural, linguistic, and religious contexts of versions in eleven languages: Arabic, Aramaic, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Russian, Spanish, and Yiddish. He profiles many Jewish translators, among them Buber, Hirsch, Kaplan, Leeser, Luzzatto, Mendelssohn, Orlinsky, and Saadiah Gaon, framing their aspirations within the Jewish and larger milieus in which they worked. Greenspoon differentiates their principles, styles, and techniques—for example, their choice to emphasize either literal reflections of the Hebrew or distinctive elements of the vernacular language—and their underlying rationales. As he highlights distinctive features of Jewish Bible translations, he offers new insights regarding their shared characteristics and their limits. Additionally, Greenspoon shows how profoundly Jewish translators and interpreters influenced the style and diction of the King James Bible. Accessible and authoritative for all from beginners to scholars, Jewish Bible Translations enables readers to make their own informed evaluations of individual translations and to holistically assess Bible translation within Judaism.
Jewish Blood: Reality and metaphor in history, religion and culture (Routledge Jewish Studies Series)
by Mitchell B. HartThis book deals with the Jewish engagement with blood: animal and human, real and metaphorical. Concentrating on the meaning or significance of blood in Judaism, the book moves this highly controversial subject away from its traditional focus, exploring how Jews themselves engage with blood and its role in Jewish identity, ritual and culture. With contributions from leading scholars in the field, the book brings together a wide range of perspectives and covers communities in ancient Israel, Europe and America, as well as all major eras of Jewish history: biblical, Talmudic, medieval and modern. Providing historical, religious and cultural examples ranging from the "Blood Libel" through to the poetry of Uri Zvi Greenberg, this volume explores the deep continuities in thought and practice related to blood. Moreover, it examines the continuities and discontinuities between Jewish and Christian ideas and practices related to blood, many of which extend into the modern, contemporary period. The chapters look at not only the Jewish and Christian interaction, but the interaction between Jews and the individual national communities to which they belong, including the complex appropriation and rejection of European ideas and images undertaken by some Zionists, and then by the State of Israel. This broad-ranging and multidisciplinary work will be of interest to students of Jewish Studies, History and Religion.
Jewish Blues: A History of a Color in Judaism (Jewish Culture and Contexts)
by Gadi SagivJewish Blues presents a broad cultural, social, and intellectual history of the color blue in Jewish life between the sixteenth and twenty-first centuries. Bridging diverse domains such as religious law, mysticism, eschatology, as well as clothing and literature, this book contends that, by way of a protracted process, the color blue has constituted a means through which Jews have understood themselves.In ancient Jewish texts, the term for blue, tekhelet, denotes a dye that serves Jewish ritual purposes. Since medieval times, however, Jews gradually ceased to use tekhelet in their ritual life. In the nineteenth century, however, interest in restoring ancient dyes increased among European scholars. In the Jewish case, rabbis and scientists attempted to reproduce the ancient tekhelet dye. The resulting dyes were gradually accepted in the ritual life of many Orthodox Jews. In addition to being a dye playing a role in Jewish ritual, blue features prominently in the Jewish mystical tradition, in Jewish magic and popular custom, and in Jewish eschatology. Blue is also representative of the Zionist movement, and it is the only chromatic color in the national flag of the State of Israel.Through the study of the changing roles and meanings attributed to the color blue in Judaism, Jewish Blues sheds new light on the power of a visual symbol in shaping the imagination of Jews throughout history. The use of the color blue continues to reflect pressing issues for Jews in our present era, as it has become a symbol of Jewish modernity.
Jewish Books in North Africa: Between the Early Modern and Modern Worlds (Sephardi and Mizrahi Studies)
by Noam SiennaJewish Books in North Africa delves into the multifaceted significance of books among North African Jews. From the late Middle Ages to the 19th century, this exploration encompasses the history, manufacture, distribution, and readership of Jewish books. These texts were not mere vessels of knowledge; they were integral to a vibrant cultural tapestry that stretched across North Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.Author Noam Sienna unveils a vast Sephardic world created by these books. This literary network transcended geographical boundaries, connecting Jewish communities from Fez and Tunis to Salonica, Jerusalem, and Livorno.By examining cultural centers and tracing the journey of these texts, Sienna provides depth to our understanding of a remarkably global and worldly book culture, and its evolving role in the growth of Jewish modernity.While the content of Jewish books has long fascinated scholars, Jewish Books in North Africa shifts our focus to the physical context. These books were not isolated artifacts; they were embedded in cultural networks during a period of religious, political, and cultural transformation. Sienna's work sheds light on the intricate interplay between books and the dynamic world in which they existed.
Jewish Buenos Aires, 1890-1939: In Search of an Identity
by Dr Victor A MirelmanVictor Mirelman, in his study of the greatest concentration of Latin American Jewry, examines the changing facade of the Argentinean Jewish community from the beginning of mass Jewish immigration in 1890 to its decline in 1930. During this period, Jews arrived from Russia, Poland, Romania, Syria, Turkey and Morocco Each group founded its own synagogues. mutual help organizations. hospitals. cultural associations. and newspapers of particular vitality was the Yiddish press and the Yiddish theatre. Jewish immigrants were also especially active politically, particularly in the Socialist Party and in the workers' unions. <P><P> Based on research in the Argentine archives. Jewish Buenos Aires, 1890-1930 describes the immigration and settlement process. studies the first generation of Argentine-born Jews. and provides an understanding of assimilation and acculturation. Mirelman discusses the religious life of the community differentiating between the Ashkenazim and the various Sephardic groups and devotes chapters to Zionism, to Jewish culture in Yiddish. Hebrew. and Spanish. to education; and to social action Issues that created conflict and friction are analyzed in detail.
Jewish Cattle Traders in the German Countryside, 1919–1939: Economic Trust and Antisemitic Violence
by Stefanie FischerJewish Cattle Traders in the German Countryside, 1919–1939, explores the social and economic networks in which this group operated and the informal but durable bonds between Jewish cattle traders and farmers that not even incessant Nazi attacks could break.Stefanie Fischer combines approaches from social history, economic history, and sociology to challenge the longstanding cliché of the shady Jewish cattle dealer. By focusing on trust and social connections rather than analyzing economic trends, Fischer exposes the myriad inconsistencies that riddled the process of expelling the Jews from Germany.Jewish Cattle Traders in the German Countryside, 1919–1939, examines the complexities of relations between Jews and non-Jews who were engaged in economic and social exchange. In the process, Fischer challenges previous understandings of everyday life under Nazi rule and discovers new ways in which Jewish agency acted as a critical force throughout the exclusionary processes that took place in Hitler's Germany.