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The American Journey: A History of the United States (AP Edition, Fourth Edition)
by David Goldfield Carl Abbott Virginia Dejohn Anderson Jo Ann E. Argersinger Peter H. Argersinger William L. Barney Robert M. WeirAmerican history is a compelling story and this book seeks to tell it in an engaging, forthright way. It also provides students with an abundance of tools to help them absorb that story and put it in context. It introduces them to the concerns of the participants in America's history with primary source documents.
The American Military: A Narrative History
by Brad D. LookingbillThe American Military: A Narrative History presents a comprehensive introduction to more than four centuries of American military history. Presents a chronological account of American military history from clashes between militias and Native Americans to 21st-century operations in Afghanistan and Iraq Features personal vignettes to put a human face on armed conflict Addresses patterns of national service, the evolution of civil-military relations, and the advent of all-volunteer forces Puts events in historical context, and considers cultural, social, political, economic, and technological developments
The American Revolution
by Bruce Bliven Jr.Based on Greenhaven Press's critically acclaimed Opposing Viewpoints series, Opposing Viewpoints in World History is a critical thinking resource for the study of world history. Each anthology explores a divisive issue of history through primary and secondary documents arranged in a pro/con format. While prominent speakers of the past debate the important issues of the time, historians and other commentators continue the discussion by highlighting issues that are still debated today. The point/counterpoint structure challenges readers to exercise and sharpen their critical thinking skills while highlighting the most important issues throughout history. Introductions and chapter prefaces provide context, and bibliographies, indexes, and annotated tables of contents offer tools for further research. With its many useful features, the Opposing Viewpoints in World History series is a unique resource for examining complex historical topics. Book jacket.
The American Revolution (Great Battles For Boys)
by Joe GiorelloFrom Concord and Lexington to Brandywine and Yorktown, the stunning battles show young readers how ragtag colonists took on the world’s mightiest military of its time — the British Imperial Army, otherwise known as the Red Coats. <p><p> History leaps off the page and captures even reluctant readers as early colonial protests, such as the Boston Tea Party, bring even more tyranny from King George III. With a declaration of war from England and the appointment of George Washington as commander of the Continental Army, the revolution’s real battles begin. <p><p> In chronological order, Great Battles for Boys: The American Revolution takes young readers to the front lines of the war's major clashes such as: Long Island: British General Howe crushes Washington’s forces and proves the odds are against the Patriot forces.
The American Revolution 100: The Battles, People, and Events of the American War for Independence, Ranked by Their Significance
by Michael LanningExperience the defining moments of the war that gave birth to America. The American Revolution 100 brings to life the monumental moments, bloody battles, and influential leaders who gave birth to a great nation. In comprehensive fashion, decorated veteran and military expert Michael Lee Lanning ranks and analyzes the war's most significant events, showing how each affected the outcome. Relive the memorable battles, when a country of citizen-farmers prepared themselves to take on the mightiest army in the world. Learn about the remarkable figures and forces of the time, and decide for yourself: Who influenced the revolution more--John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or John Paul Jones? Was the Battle of Yorktown more pivotal than the Battle of Trenton? Was The Declaration of Independence more important to the revolution than Thomas Paine's Common Sense? Read the stories of Henry Knox, Thomas Sumter, American militias, and December 26, 1776, and let your own debates begin... Praise for Michael Lee Lanning's history books: "Easily accessible... Recommended reference for the aficionado and the uninitiated alike." ForeWord magazine. "Unusual and even witty insights also abound." Publishers Weekly.
The American Revolution Considered as a Social Movement
by J. Franklin JamesonThis small book, first published in 1926, is comprised of three lectures on the American Revolution considered as a Social Movement, which were delivered by renowned historian and author J. Franklin Jameson in November 1925 on the Louis Clark Vanuxem foundation. In the fourth and final chapter, Jameson sums up and provides thoughts in conclusion.Proving to be an influential publication, the book expresses themes that Jameson had been developing since the 1890s, and which reflected the “Progressive” historiography. It downplays ideas and political values and stresses that the Revolution was a fight over power among economic interest groups, especially as to who would rule at home.“This is a small but highly significant book by one of the first scholars of America...A truly notable book, this is, carefully organized, cut with a diamond point to a finish, studded with novel illustrative materials, gleaming with new illumination, serenely engaging in style, and sparingly garnished with genial humor.”—CHARLES A. BEARD“...stands as a landmark in recent American historiography, a slender but unmistakable signpost, pointing a new direction for historical research and interpretation...The influence of this little book with the long title has grown steadily...With the passage of a quarter-century, the book has achieved the standing of a minor classic. One will hardly find a textbook that does not paraphrase or quote Jameson’s words, borrow his illustrations, cite him in its bibliography.”—FREDERICK B. TOLLES in The American Historical Review“The scholarship is impeccable, the style is polished, and, above all, the outlook is broad and thoughtful...The author has a keen eye for relationships which might easily be neglected.”—ALLAN NEVINS
The American Revolution for Kids: A History with 21 Activities (For Kids series)
by Janis HerbertHeroes, traitors, and great thinkers come to life in this activity book, and the concepts of freedom and democracy are celebrated in true accounts of the distinguished officers, wise delegates, rugged riflemen, and hardworking farm wives and children who created the new nation. This collection tells the story of the Revolution, from the hated Stamp Act and the Boston Tea Party to the British surrender at Yorktown and the creation of the United States Constitution. All American students are required to study the Revolution and the Constitution, and these 21 activities make it fun and memorable. Kids create a fringed hunting shirt and a tricorn hat and reenact the Battle of Cowpens. They will learn how to make their voices heard in "I Protest" and how Congress works in "There Ought to Be a Law." A final selection including the Declaration of Independence, a glossary, biographies, and pertinent Web sites makes this book a valuable resource for both students and teachers.
The American Revolution on Long Island (Military)
by Dr. Joanne S GrassoA history of the Revolutionary War and British occupation in this part of New York, from the Culper spy ring to the prison ships where thousands died. The American Revolution sharply divided families and towns on New York&’s Long Island. Washington's defeat at the Battle of Long Island in August 1776 started seven years of British occupation—and Patriot sympathizers were subject to loyalty oaths, theft of property, and the quartering of soldiers in their homes. Those who crossed the British were jailed on prison ships in Wallabout Bay in Brooklyn, where an estimated eleven thousand people died of disease and starvation. Some fought back with acts of sabotage and espionage—and Washington&’s famed Culper spy ring in Oyster Bay, Setauket, and other areas successfully tracked British movements. In this book, historian Joanne S. Grasso explores the story of an island at war.
The American Revolution through British Eyes: A Documentary Collection, Volume I
by James J. Barnes Patience P. BarnesEyewitness accounts of the War of Independence by British observers and participants. The letters in this collection were written mostly by British military officers and diplomats reporting directly to their superiors in London. Many of the writers were actively engaged in fighting the Americans from 1775 until 1783; others were colonial administrators traveling through North America assessing the progress of British troops. <p><p> Beginning with reports of the surprisingly violent American response at the battles of Lexington and Concord, these letters by British army officers and soldiers initially conveyed supreme confidence. Likewise, correspondents in the Royal Navy had no reason to doubt their ultimate victory, since they understood themselves to be the world’s most formidable commercial and military fleet. As the Revolution proceeded, the colonists confounded the British by issuing Letters of Marque to the owners of privately held ships, which enabled them to supplement the modest colonial navy with privateers that attacked and disrupted British supply lines, cutting off needed reinforcements and provisions, including food that the colonists refused to provide. Other unorthodox tactics followed, causing increasing concern among the British, including the eventual fate of many Loyalists, some of whom had fought alongside British troops. What would befall these allies if America actually achieved independence? <p><p> The near-daily reports in this engrossing two-volume collection enable us to appreciate the familiar drama of American independence from a different standpoint, one not widely studied. Little-known details emerge, such as the fact that King George III seriously considered abdicating the throne at least twice should independence be granted to America. The American Revolution through British Eyes is sure to captivate anyone with an interest in America’s struggle for independence.
The American Revolution: 1763 - 1783
by James Lincoln Collier Christopher CollierHistory is dramatic -- and the renowned, award-winning authors Christopher Collier and James Lincoln Collier demonstrate this in a compelling series aimed at young readers. Covering American history from the founding of Jamestown through present day, these volumes explore far beyond the dates and events of a historical chronicle to present a moving illumination of the ideas, opinions, attitudes and tribulations that led to the birth of this great nation. The American Revolution examines the people and events involved in the significant war by which the thirteen original colonies broke away from England. The authors explain the many sources of conflict between the Americans and the British government, how each side approached the problems, and the results of the escalating violence. The text is enhanced with images of historical art & artifacts, maps of key battles, and photographs of reenacted scenes.
The American Revolution: A History
by Gordon S. WoodAn elegant synthesis done by the leading scholar in the field, which nicely integrates the work on the American Revolution over the last three decades but never loses contact with the older, classic questions that we have been arguing about for over two hundred years.
The American Revolution: A History (Modern Library Chronicles)
by Gordon S. Wood"An elegant synthesis done by the leading scholar in the field, which nicely integrates the work on the American Revolution over the last three decades but never loses contact with the older, classic questions that we have been arguing about for over two hundred years. " -Joseph J. Ellis, author ofFounding Brothers A magnificent account of the revolution in arms and consciousness that gave birth to the American republic. When Abraham Lincoln sought to define the significance of the United States, he naturally looked back to the American Revolution. He knew that the Revolution not only had legally created the United States, but also had produced all of the great hopes and values of the American people. Our noblest ideals and aspirations-our commitments to freedom, constitutionalism, the well-being of ordinary people, and equality-came out of the Revolutionary era. Lincoln saw as well that the Revolution had convinced Americans that they were a special people with a special destiny to lead the world toward liberty. The Revolution, in short, gave birth to whatever sense of nationhood and national purpose Americans have had. No doubt the story is a dramatic one: Thirteen insignificant colonies three thousand miles from the centers of Western civilization fought off British rule to become, in fewer than three decades, a huge, sprawling, rambunctious republic of nearly four million citizens. But the history of the American Revolution, like the history of the nation as a whole, ought not to be viewed simply as a story of right and wrong from which moral lessons are to be drawn. It is a complicated and at times ironic story that needs to be explained and understood, not blindly celebrated or condemned. How did this great revolution come about? What was its character? What were its consequences? These are the questions this short history seeks to answer. That it succeeds in such a profound and enthralling way is a tribute to Gordon Wood's mastery of his subject, and of the historian's craft. From the Hardcover edition.
The American Revolution: A Visual History (DK Definitive Visual Histories)
by DKUncover the remarkable story of the American Revolution! Who were the Redcoats, and what was the Boston Tea Party? Explore key events like the British surrender at Yorktown, and the writing of the Declaration of Independence.Written in association with the esteemed Smithsonian Institution, this beautiful visual reference book will transport you back in time and onto the front lines of the American Revolution. Take chronological steps through the American Revolution, starting with the first stirrings of colonial resistance. Learn about important events and key moments of the war that gave birth to the American republic. Meet the most memorable people from the period, from George Washington to Benedict Arnold, and explore first-person accounts by soldiers and civilians. This history book for children grade 7 and up gives you a complete overview of the most fascinating events during the war. The action is brought to life through illustrated accounts of every major military action and comprehensive timelines for every stage of the conflict. Gallery spreads feature the weapons, arms, and uniforms that were used, to give you a full picture of what it was like. Large color pictures, black-and-white drawings, and detailed maps add intriguing visuals to the history of America, so reading can be engaging and enjoyable. This visual reference book also details the politics of the war and the different parts of society impacted by the events. Learn about the treatment of prisoners and the revolution's implications for women, Native Americans, and African-Americans. Dive in and explore the parts of the American Revolution you haven&’t yet discovered.Mapping the Road to American Independence The American Revolution is the most significant event in American history. Without it, there would not be the United States of America. More than 240 years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, this educational book demonstrates why this historical period is still so important today.Journey through the most significant events and battles: • From Resistance to Rebellion – Before 1775 • The Start of the War – 1775 • Birth of a Nation – 1776 • The Struggle for Mastery – 1777 • A Widening War – 1778 • Conflict Spreads – 1779 • The Continuing Struggle – 1780 • America Victorious – 1781-83 • Aftermath: A Stronger Nation
The American Revolution: A World War
by John Gray Larrie D. Ferreiro David AllisonAn illustrated collection of essays that explores the international dimensions of the American Revolution and its legacies in both America and around the worldThe American Revolution: A World War argues that contrary to popular opinion, the American Revolution was not just a simple battle for independence in which the American colonists waged a "David versus Goliath" fight to overthrow their British rulers. Instead, the essays in the book illustrate how the American Revolution was a much more complicated and interesting conflict. It was an extension of larger skirmishes among the global superpowers in Europe, chiefly Britain, Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Amid these ongoing conflicts, Britain's focus was often pulled away from the war in America as it fought to preserve its more lucrative colonial interests in the Caribbean and India. The book, the illustrated companion volume to the Smithsonian National Museum of American History exhibition of the same name, touches on this and other topics including overseas empires, economic rivalries, supremacy of the seas, European diplomacy, and more. Together the book's incisive text, full-color images, and topical sidebars underscore that America's fight for independence is most clearly comprehended as one of the first global struggles for power.
The American Revolution: Understanding The Limiting Factors Of Washington’s Strategy
by Major Douglas D. JonesDuring the American Revolution, as the Commander in Chief of the Continental Army, George Washington was responsible for determining the military strategy of the rebellious colonies. Throughout the war, diplomatic, social, and economic factors prevented Washington and his subordinate commanders from developing a strategy that allowed militia soldiers to fight in the same formations as soldiers of the Continental Army.During the conflict, the Continental Congress took measures to maintain control of the Continental Army, which hampered Washington's ability to plan and execute military strategy. Although recruiting problems, training challenges, and complications with the command structure limited Washington's ability to form strategy and employ the Continental Army, by 1778, Washington and his subordinate commanders successfully developed a professional force that was capable of fighting against the British Army. Despite the militia's lack of discipline, inconsistent regulations and limited training, over time, Washington cleverly used the militia in specific roles to enhance his strategy. Once Washington understood how diplomatic, social, and economic factors restricted his strategy, he combined the military capabilities of the Continental Army in a complimentary manner with the strengths of the militia which enabled the rebellious Americans, with the support of European allies, to defeat the British.
The American Slave-Trade: An Account of Its Origin, Growth and Suppression (History Of The United States Ser.)
by John R. SpearsFirst published in the year 1900, American journalist, naval historian and author John R. Spears’ book tells the story of American slave trading, from its early beginnings in 1619 to its end with the hanging of the last slaver in 1862. In this carefully researched history, Spears vividly recounts tales of the ship-owners who crammed 500 or more human beings into holds so filthy that half of them died before the voyage ended, and the captains who chained their human cargo to the anchor and threw them into the sea to avoid being taken with evidence. There are chapters on the first slaver pirate to be executed in the United States; the forming of the law that followed Amistad’s voyage; and the notion that a man may take another life if his liberty is at stake. The American Slave-Trade chronicles facts showing the gain involved and the dreams of a slave state; the sham efforts—as well as the authentic ones—to stop slavery; and exposes the fanatical bigots—who they were and how they stood to profit. Finally, the book also details the facts relating to overcrowded ships and brutal masters in the odious traffic in African slaves.
The American Socialist Movement 1897-1912
by Ira KipnisFirst published in 1952, this work has taken its place as the standard history of the Socialist Party to 1912.The American Socialist Party, at the height of its power, had more than a hundred and fifty thousand members, published hundreds of newspapers, won almost a million votes for its presidential candidate, elected more than one thousand of its members to political office, secured passage of a considerable body of legislation, won the support of one-third of the American Federation of Labor, and was instrumental in organizing the Industrial Workers of the World. It counted in its ranks some of the most talented organizers, able thinkers, and colorful personalities of their generation, conducted an immense propaganda effort, and, for a time, multiplied its support and influence at an astounding pace. The rise and decline of the Socialist Party constitutes a most important and instructive chapter in American history. Few books have more to offer to the student of the movement than this one.
The American South and the Great War, 1914-1924
by James Hall M. Ryan Floyd Lee Sartain Matthew L. Downs Annette Cox Fritz Hamer Angela Jill Cooley Kathelene McCarty Smith Keith Phelan Gorman Janet G. HudsonEdited by Matthew L. Downs and M. Ryan Floyd, The American South and the Great War, 1914–1924 investigates how American participation in World War I further strained the region’s relationship with the federal government, how wartime hardships altered the South’s traditional social structure, and how the war effort stressed and reshaped the southern economy. The volume contends that participation in World War I contributed greatly to the modernization of the South, initiating changes ultimately realized during World War II and the postwar era. Although the war had a tremendous impact on the region, few scholars have analyzed the topic in a comprehensive fashion, making this collection a much-needed addition to the study of American and southern history. These essays address a variety of subjects, including civil rights, economic growth and development, politics and foreign policy, women’s history, gender history, and military history. Collectively, this volume highlights a time and an experience often overshadowed by later events, illustrating the importance of World War I in the emergence of a modern South.
The American South and the Vietnam War: Belligerence, Protest, and Agony in Dixie (Studies In Conflict, Diplomacy, And Peace Ser.)
by Joseph A. FryTo fully comprehend the Vietnam War, it is essential to understand the central role that southerners played in the nation's commitment to the war, in the conflict's duration, and in the fighting itself. President Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas and Secretary o
The American Sword 1775-1945
by Harold L. PetersonThe first book devoted exclusively to the subject, this invaluable volume will aid collectors, curators, historians. Enhanced with more than 400 illustrations from rare documents, the book classifies and describes all major types of swords worn by the U.S. armed forces, cadets, and diplomats since the American Revolution to the end of World War II.
The American War Of Sucession – 1863 [Illustrated Edition]: Chancellorsville And Gettysburg (Special Campaigns Series #13)
by Colonel Philip H. DalbiacIncludes Civil War Map and Illustrations Pack - 224 battle plans, campaign maps, and detailed analyses of actions spanning the entire period of hostilities.The American Civil War had been raging since 1861. In the eastern theatre of the war, the Confederate forces - under the brilliant leadership of Robert E. Lee - traded blows with a succession of Union commanders and inflicted some severe losses on his enemy. In the period covered by the book--1963--the next commander, to try to wrest the initiative from the Confederates and utilise the numerical superiority of the Union forces, was Maj.-General Hooker. His attempt would founder catastrophically at the battle of Chancellorsville, which in turn might be described as General Lee's most famous victory. The high-water mark of the Confederate successes was to be at the battle of Gettysburg, with the Union forces under new commander General Meade holding their own and finally gaining the initiative.Although a short book, it is a revealing look at the campaign from an "out-side" point of view free from partisan bias.This book is part of the Special Campaigns series produced around the turn of the 20th century by serving or recently retired British and Indian Army officers. They were principally intended for use by British officers seeking a wider knowledge of military history.Title - The American War of Sucession - 1863 [Illustrated Edition]Sub-Title - Chancellorsville and GettysburgSeries Name - Special Campaigns SeriesSeries Number -- 13Author -- Colonel Philip H. Dalbiac (1855-1927)
The American War in Afghanistan: A History
by Carter MalkasianA New York Times Notable Book for 2021. The American war in Afghanistan, which began in 2001, is now the longest armed conflict in the nation's history. In this book, Carter Malkasian provides the first comprehensive history of the entire conflict up to the signing of the US-Taliban peace agreement in February 2020. Both a leading scholarly authority and an experienced, on-the-ground practitioner fluent in Pashto, Malkasian spent nearly two years working in the Afghan countryside prior to becoming the senior advisor to first the top US military commander in Afghanistan and later the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Drawing from a deep well of local knowledge and a rich array of primary sources, Malkasian moves through the war's multiple phases: the 2001 invasion and after; the resurgence of the Taliban in 2006; the Obama-era surge; and the various resets in strategy that occurred from 2011 onward, culminating in the 2018-2020 peace talks. Malkasian lived through most of it and draws from his own experiences to provide a truly unique perspective on the war. Today, the Taliban is the most powerful faction, and sees victory as probable. The ultimate outcome after America leaves is inherently unpredictable given the multitude of actors there, but one thing is sure: the war did not go as America had hoped. Although the al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden was killed and no major attack on the American homeland occurred after 2001, the United States was unable to end the violence or hand over the war to the Afghan authorities, which could not survive without US military backing. This book explains why the war had such a disappointing outcome. A wise and all-encompassing portrait of the conflict through all of its phases, The American War in Afghanistan will remain the authoritative account for years to come. CARTER MALKASIAN was the Special Assistant for Strategy to Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman General Joseph Dunford from 2015 to 2019. He has extensive experience working in Afghanistan through multiple deployments throughout the country. The highlight of his work is the nearly two years he spent in Garmser district, Helmand province, Afghanistan, as a State Department political officer and the district stabilization team leader. He is the author of War Comes to Garmser: Thirty Years of Conflict on the Afghan Frontier (Oxford) and Illusions of Victory: The Anbar Awakening and the Rise of the Islamic State (Oxford). He has a doctorate in history from Oxford and is fluent in Pashto.
The American War of Sucession – 1861-1862 {Illustrated Edition]: Bull Run to Malvern Hill (Special Campaigns Series #11)
by Major George William RedwayThis ebook is purpose built and is proof-read and re-type set from the original to provide an outstanding experience of reflowing text for an ebook reader. Includes Civil War Map and Illustrations Pack - 224 battle plans, campaign maps, and detailed analyses of actions spanning the entire period of hostilities. An excellent account of the first two years of the American Civil War, Major Redway sifts through the wealth of material available to give a digestible interpretation of the events. It was during these two years that the attritional nature of the War was realised and both belligerents realised that the hostilities would be both long and bloody. In the Eastern Theatre, from the Battle of Bull Run, notable for the inexperience of the troops and the emergence of Thomas Jackson as a leader of the first order who gained his nickname "Stonewall" by his inspiring performance, to the Peninsula Campaign which forced the Union troops back from their attempt to assault Richmond. In the west, much blood was spilt on both sides, but the fighting was inconclusive and hardly decisive; Ulysses S. Grant was gaining much experience and profited by planning a number of minor victories. This book is part of the Special Campaigns series produced around the turn of the 20th century by serving or recently retired British and Indian Army officers. They were intended principally for use by British officers seeking a wider knowledge of military history. Title - The American War of Sucession - 1861-1862 Sub-Title - Bull Run to Malvern Hill Series Name - Special Campaigns Series Series Number --11 Author -- Major George William Redway (1859-1934) Text taken, whole and complete, from the edition published in 1910, London, by Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Original - viii and 392 pages. Illustrations - The maps cannot be reproduced with this volume as they are A3 - 224 additional maps have been added.
The American War: A History of the Civil War Era
by Gary W. Gallagher Joan WaughIn The American War, renowned historians Gary W. Gallagher and Joan Waugh provide a fresh examination of the Civil War, its aftermath, and enduring memory in a masterful work that prize-winning historian William C. Davis calls, "easily the best one-volume assessment of the Civil War to date." By investigating this crucial period through the eyes of civilians, celebrated leaders, and citizen soldiers, readers interested in the Civil War era will gain a profound understanding of the dramatic events, personalities, and social and economic processes that caused the war, enabled the Union to prevail, and forever transformed the United States. It also will help readers understand why, more than 150 years after Appomattox, it remains impossible to grasp the larger sweep of U.S. history without coming to terms with the American War.
The American Warfare State: The Domestic Politics of Military Spending (Chicago Series on International and Domestic Institutions)
by Rebecca U. ThorpeHow is it that the United States--a country founded on a distrust of standing armies and strong centralized power--came to have the most powerful military in history? Long after World War II and the end of the Cold War, in times of rising national debt and reduced need for high levels of military readiness, why does Congress still continue to support massive defense budgets? In The American Warfare State, Rebecca U. Thorpe argues that there are profound relationships among the size and persistence of the American military complex, the growth in presidential power to launch military actions, and the decline of congressional willingness to check this power. The public costs of military mobilization and war, including the need for conscription and higher tax rates, served as political constraints on warfare for most of American history. But the vast defense industry that emerged from World War II also created new political interests that the framers of the Constitution did not anticipate. Many rural and semirural areas became economically reliant on defense-sector jobs and capital, which gave the legislators representing them powerful incentives to press for ongoing defense spending regardless of national security circumstances or goals. At the same time, the costs of war are now borne overwhelmingly by a minority of soldiers who volunteer to fight, future generations of taxpayers, and foreign populations in whose lands wars often take place. Drawing on an impressive cache of data, Thorpe reveals how this new incentive structure has profoundly reshaped the balance of wartime powers between Congress and the president, resulting in a defense industry perennially poised for war and an executive branch that enjoys unprecedented discretion to take military action.