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Human Resource Management Applications
by Stella M. Nkomo Myron D. Fottler R. Bruce McafeeStrengthen your practical understanding of today's human resource management (HRM) with this single source for actual cases, unique exercises and skill builders. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT APPLICATIONS: CASES, EXERCISES, AND SKILL BUILDERS, 7E focuses on the abilities most important in HRM today with timely new cases and applications drawn from a variety of real organizations, including those in today's growing service sector. Learn to effectively handle some of today's controversial issues, such as environmentally friendly HR policies, the use of social networking, and same-sex benefits. This book perfectly complements your study of introductory human resource management with brief, yet powerful, exercises and a comprehensive project that helps you refine the skills most important for success in any HRM or business career.
Human Resource Management and the Institutional Perspective (Global HRM)
by Geoffrey Wood Chris Brewster Michael BrookesOne of the most influential debates across business and management studies has centered on the relative impact of institutions on the fortunes of firms and nations. However, analyses have primarily focused on institutional effects on societal features, rather than actual firm practices. This volume brings together recent trends in comparative institutional analysis with a rich body of data on firm-level human resource management practice, consolidating and extending more than a decade of research on the topic. Human Resource Management and the Institutional Perspective explores the overlapping and distinct elements in work and employment relations both within and across country lines. The authors focus on intra-firm relations, internal diversity within varieties of capitalism, and the uneven and experimental nature of systemic change, all the while employing an impressive level of theoretical rigor and empirical evidence. In a single volume, this text unites soundly based, theoretically strong and empirically new chapters that bring advances in institutional theory to bear on the subject of international and comparative human resource management. This book is a valuable resource for students and scholars interested in contemporary developments in institutional theory, the relationship between regulation and practice, and innovation and continuity in human resource management.
Human Resource Management and the Implementation of Change (Routledge Focus on Business and Management)
by Paritosh Mishra Balvinder Shukla R SujathaWith the increased pace of global, economical and technological development, change has become an inevitable feature of any organisation to survive in the competitive market. If it is a planned change process, the HR practitioner can use any of the existing general models or theories of change and use suggestive interventions to increase effectiveness and capability to change itself. When the magnitude of change is unpredictable or the degree of the organisational process or systems is unorganised, the existing models or practice of planned change is still in the formative stage, and there is room for continuous refinement and improvement. This book will bridge this gap in the current organisational development and change literature by benefiting the HR practitioner with six real case studies. The cases bring out the interventions adopted, key activities associated with the successful implementation of interventions and the critical role played by HR in achieving organisational effectiveness. This book captures the transformational journey of a diverse set of companies and weaves various dimensions into a common coherent framework for the field of HRM in Change Management. The case studies illustrate six powerful organisational experiences, listing the major activities contributing to effective change management from motivating change, vision, support from key stakeholders, transition management to organisational and HR commitment for implementation. By demonstrating the role of HR as a ‘change agent,’ this volume will be valuable to researchers, academics, managers and students in the fields of human resource management and change management.
Human Resource Management and the Global Financial Crisis: Evidence from India's IT/BPO Industry (Routledge Frontiers of Business Management)
by Ashish MalikThis book analyses managerial responses and people management strategies and processes adopted to deal with the challenges imposed by the Global Financial Crisis (GFC). It examines how key actors in the system exercised strategic choices in a given strategic environment, as well as how they responded and developed strategies in this globally integrated industry, in an emerging market context. The book focuses on the nature of strategic choices available to firms in the Indian information technology (IT) and knowledge and business process outsourcing (K and BPO) industry. It looks at how these Indian firms in the IT industry exercise their strategic choices to deal with their routine business and how these routines were changed through learning and investment in certain HR and management practices in times of crisis. Additional insights from other national and industry contexts are also provided for wider coverage of how the GFC-affected organisations frame their responses to deal with it. The book examines the changes in the human resource processes and how organisations adjust their operant business models to deal with the pressures brought about by the crisis.
Human Resource Management and Technological Challenges
by Carolina Machado J. Paulo DavimThis book focuses on the challenges and changes that new technologies bring to human resources (HR) of modern organizations. It examines the technological implications of the last changes taking place and how they affect the management and motivation of human resources belonging to these organizations. It looks for ways to understand and perceive how organizational HR, individually and as a team, conceptualize, invent, adapt, define and use organizational technology, as well as how they are constrained by features of it. The book provides discussion and the exchange of information on principles, strategies, models, techniques, methodologies and applications of human resources management and technological challenges and changes in the field of industry, commerce and services.
Human Resource Management and Occupational Health and Safety (Routledge Advances in Management and Business Studies #No.26)
by Carol BoydOccupational Health and Safety (OHS) is a complex area which interacts widely with a broader spectrum of business interests and concerns. To date OHS has been confined to the periphery of Human Resource Management (HRM), where its role, influence and importance have been overlooked. This text sets out to reposition OHS in HRM and business agendas. This book unravels the complex range of factors affecting OHS policy, practice and outcomes. These factors are then placed into context within the international airline, call centre and nuclear power industries. The author presents a wide range of primary and secondary research in order to offer an accessible framework for OHS in contemporary occupational settings.This book will be essential reading for students, practitioners and professional academic audiences who seek a broader understanding of the relationship and interaction between HRM principles, policies and practices and OHS.
Human Resource Management and Internal Marketing (Routledge Advances in Management and Business Studies)
by Teena MishraThis book explains various key concepts of internal marketing and its relation to human resource management, commitment, service quality, market orientation, etc. Various human resource models are insufficient to define internal marketing. Therefore there is a need to focus on the models and key concepts of human resource management and internal marketing and in what way they contribute to organizational success. It involves motivation, internal market research, internal communication, internal segmentation, employee retention, inter-functional coordination, and internal branding. The current need for human resource management is to link human resource management and marketing practices which are called internal marketing. Internal marketing plays an eminent role in organizational success. This book helps students, practitioners, start-ups, and educationists. This is a research monograph that will assist an organization to decide the future of human resource management as well as organizational development. This book is for marketing as well as human resource discipline. As internal marketing is the integration of marketing and human resource management. Due to new technology, globalization, and liberalization market need and demand are also changing, thus it is necessary to understand new trends in the application of human resources. Therefore, it is necessary to motivate and satisfy internal customers and make them market and skill-oriented.
Human Resource Management and Digitalization (Routledge-Giappichelli Studies in Business and Management)
by Franca Cantoni Gianluigi MangiaDigitalization is changing the world of work. Technology is shifting the relationship between workers and machines and how work is organized; new skills are becoming increasingly relevant in the workplace where workers no longer work for a single company, in 9-to-5 jobs, five days a week. Industry 4.0, also known as the Fourth Industrial Revolution, is revolutionizing the way managers can design, control and improve their activities. While the nature of the tasks and the interdependences between individuals are changing, the impact of intelligent technologies is severely questioning the span of control of leaders and the effectiveness of their leadership styles. The authors sketch out the main changes occurring in the business landscape and identify the new expectations that organizations are formulating for leaders across several industries. In an age in which new leadership models are about to emerge, they describe how the relevant changes impact and shape the managerial arena. This book sets the stage for a new way of thinking on the nature of the relationship between HR and technology. It examines the influence of Industry 4.0 and Innovation 4.0, (i.e. the connection between physical and digital processes in industrial production, where human competencies and machine potential are strictly interconnected throughout the entire value chain), from a myriad of viewpoints: namely in terms of structures, practices, influences (learning, training and communication), competencies and roles. A chapter is also dedicated to the understanding of the impact of Innovation 4.0, in the context of European Universities through E-learning Experiences where a multiple-case study analysis is provided.
Human Resource Management and Change: A Practising Manager's Guide
by Lanny Entrekin Brenda D. Scott-LaddThis exciting new book has grown from a need to provide practical advice to managers who deal with contemporary human resource and change issues. A crucial role of a manager is to respond in the best interests of the organisation and at the same time retain talent. Skill shortages and ageing populations in developed economies and the need for emerging economies to develop their workforce coincide to present managers with unique challenges. Human Resource Management and Change: A practising managers guide offers a timely overview of recent environmental and economic changes as depicted by the DELTA forces of change. These include demographic, environmental, legal, technical and attitudinal changes that are in part the product of globalization, and the Global Financial Crisis (GFC). The fundamental strategies for managing change and implementing human resource practices are clearly explained. End of chapter study guides further explain the topics of the chapters by providing case studies and review and discussion questions as well as further reading. The text reflects the everyday challenge managers face in a turbulent environment and focuses on providing practical guidelines to managers who may not have higher academic qualifications to help them manage people and change.
Human Resource Management and Army Recruiting
by Steven Garber James N. DertouzosU.S. Army Recruiting Command is faced with the challenge of ensuring that the flow of qualified volunteers is adequate to meet future active-duty accession requirements. This report documents research methods, findings, and policy conclusions from a project analyzing human resource management options for improving recruiting production. It details research designed to develop new insights to help guide future recruiter management policies.
Human Resource Management (13th Edition)
by Robert L. Mathis John H. JacksonTrust the authoritative resource for human resource management to offer the most current look at HR and its impact on today's organizations with both new and thoroughly updated cases and today's most recent examples--90 percent of which are from 2006 and beyond. Mathis/Jackson's HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Thirteenth Edition, is the most trusted resource and best-selling HR solution for preparing future or currently practicing HR professionals. Updated, strong academic coverage, including the latest 2009 HRCI outline, ensures this edition addresses all major topics for professional examinations (PHR, SPHR) given by the Human Resource Certification Institute (SHRM). The latest HR research and a wealth of new and proven learning features in every chapter demonstrate how HR impacts organizational strategy. Reorganized and streamlined topics examine emerging trends in technology, globalization, and HR Metrics, as well as other developments impacting the practice of HR today. A complete package of teaching and learning resources, including new CourseMate online learning tools, helps today's aspiring professionals prepare for career and future HR success.
Human Resource Management: A Nordic Perspective
by Helene Ahl Ingela Bergmo-Prvulovic Karin KilhammarSweden has one of the lowest national debts in Europe, a well-educated workforce, and the country consistently ranks in top positions of the best places to live and work in the world. Human Resource Management: A Nordic Perspective offers a unique and valuable insight into the working practices of HRM in Sweden, which has been explicated for an international audience. The book offers readers outside of the country alternative methods for improving efficiency and well-being in their own workplace. A team of experienced contributors based in Sweden discuss and analyse the Nordic tradition of inclusive and participative management and present different perspectives on creating a work-life suitable for every person involved. The first part of the book includes chapters on general issues in HR work such as development and learning, selection, teamwork, career paths, and cooperation within organisations. The second part addresses diversity, inclusion, and how discriminatory practices can be avoided. This book will be a valuable resource for students of: HRM, business, management, education, psychology, sociology, as well as human resource management professionals who are seeking new ways to balance economic and human values.
Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics
by Talya Bauer Berrin Erdogan David E. Caughlin Donald M. TruxilloHuman resources is rapidly evolving into a data-rich field but with big data comes big decisions. The best companies understand how to use data to make strategic workforce decisions and gain significant competitive advantage. Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics, Second Edition introduces students to the fundamentals of talent management with integrated coverage of analytics in every chapter. Features tied to SHRM competencies and data exercises give students hands-on opportunities to practice the analytical and decision-making skills they need to excel in today’s job market. Whether your students are future managers or future HR professionals, they will learn best practices for managing talent across the lifecycle in the changing workplace. This title is accompanied by a complete teaching and learning package. Contact your Sage representative to request a demo. Learning Platform / Courseware Sage Vantage is an intuitive learning platform that integrates quality Sage textbook content with assignable multimedia activities and auto-graded assessments to drive student engagement and ensure accountability. Unparalleled in its ease of use and built for dynamic teaching and learning, Vantage offers customizable LMS integration and best-in-class support. It’s a learning platform you, and your students, will actually love. Learn more. Assignable Video with Assessment Assignable video (available in Sage Vantage) is tied to learning objectives and curated exclusively for this text to bring concepts to life. Watch a sample video now. LMS Cartridge: Import this title’s instructor resources into your school’s learning management system (LMS) and save time. Don’t use an LMS? You can still access all of the same online resources for this title via the password-protected Instructor Resource Site. Learn more.
Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics
by Talya Bauer Berrin Erdogan David E. Caughlin Donald M. TruxilloHuman resources is rapidly evolving into a data-rich field but with big data comes big decisions. The best companies understand how to use data to make strategic workforce decisions and gain significant competitive advantage. Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics, Second Edition introduces students to the fundamentals of talent management with integrated coverage of analytics in every chapter. Features tied to SHRM competencies and data exercises give students hands-on opportunities to practice the analytical and decision-making skills they need to excel in today’s job market. Whether your students are future managers or future HR professionals, they will learn best practices for managing talent across the lifecycle in the changing workplace. This title is accompanied by a complete teaching and learning package. Contact your Sage representative to request a demo. Learning Platform / Courseware Sage Vantage is an intuitive learning platform that integrates quality Sage textbook content with assignable multimedia activities and auto-graded assessments to drive student engagement and ensure accountability. Unparalleled in its ease of use and built for dynamic teaching and learning, Vantage offers customizable LMS integration and best-in-class support. It’s a learning platform you, and your students, will actually love. Learn more. Assignable Video with Assessment Assignable video (available in Sage Vantage) is tied to learning objectives and curated exclusively for this text to bring concepts to life. Watch a sample video now. LMS Cartridge: Import this title’s instructor resources into your school’s learning management system (LMS) and save time. Don’t use an LMS? You can still access all of the same online resources for this title via the password-protected Instructor Resource Site. Learn more.
Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics
by Talya Bauer Berrin Erdogan David Caughlin Donald TruxilloHuman resources is rapidly evolving into a data-rich field but with big data comes big decisions. The best companies understand how to use data to make strategic workforce decisions and gain significant competitive advantage. Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics by Talya Bauer, Berrin Erdogan, David Caughlin, and Donald Truxillo introduces students to the fundamentals of talent management with integrated coverage of data analytics and how they can be used to inform and support decisions about people in an organization. Features tied to SHRM competencies and data exercises give readers hands-on opportunities to practice the analytical and decision-making skills they need to excel in today’s job market. Engaging examples illustrate key HRM concepts and theories, which brings many traditional HRM topics concepts to life. Whether your students are future managers or future HR professionals, they will learn best practices for managing talent across the lifecycle in the changing workplace.
Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics
by Talya Bauer Berrin Erdogan David Caughlin Donald TruxilloHuman resources is rapidly evolving into a data-rich field but with big data comes big decisions. The best companies understand how to use data to make strategic workforce decisions and gain significant competitive advantage. Human Resource Management: People, Data, and Analytics by Talya Bauer, Berrin Erdogan, David Caughlin, and Donald Truxillo introduces students to the fundamentals of talent management with integrated coverage of data analytics and how they can be used to inform and support decisions about people in an organization. Features tied to SHRM competencies and data exercises give readers hands-on opportunities to practice the analytical and decision-making skills they need to excel in today’s job market. Engaging examples illustrate key HRM concepts and theories, which brings many traditional HRM topics concepts to life. Whether your students are future managers or future HR professionals, they will learn best practices for managing talent across the lifecycle in the changing workplace.
Human Resource Management: People and Performance (Routledge Revivals)
by Keith BradleyThis book was originally published in 1992. The skills shortage of the late 1980s demonstrated that managers need to support their corporate strategies with coherent policies for recruiting, developing and retaining people. While the recession has slowed the job market and caused some of these pressures to abate, they will reassert themselves with a vengeance when recovery comes: the demographic time bomb continues to tick. Putting the emphasis on people should not, however, be a reactive process – a skilled and motivated workforce is one of the most important productive assets which companies possess, whether in recession or not. Companies which are prepared to adopt more imaginative approaches to managing their human resource capital can unlock a major and unexploited source of long-term competitive edge. Recognising the competitive advantage in people – their contribution to productivity, the role of skills in strategic positioning, the opportunities in effective management training – brings human resources into the ambit of strategic management. This book will help managers and students alike explore beyond the traditional methods of human resource management and focus on leading-edge techniques which successfully incorporate the management of human resources into strategic planning.
Human Resource Management
by Dr Pawan Budhwar Jonathan Crawshaw Ann DavisThis new text treats international, strategic and contemporary issues as central to the study and practice of Human Resource Management. Covering the core curriculum, this book provides all the knowledge and tools you need to get the best possible grades and achieve career success after university. Key Features: Skills and employability focus will help you to develop the key transferable skills valued by graduate employers Debating HRM boxes encourage critical analysis and debate International and cross-cultural cases and discussion will prepare you for the global workplace Contemporary and strategic issues are introduced early on, underpinning the HRM functions Chapters on SMEs and the not-for-profit and voluntary sectors will ensure that your knowledge and skills can be applied in a range of organisational settings Mapped to the CIPD's learning outcomes but equally suitable for non-specialist students Journal articles, a glossary, podcasts and other resources are available on the book's website at www.sagepub.co.uk/crawshaw
Human Resource Management: A Critical Approach (Routledge Companions In Business, Management And Accounting Ser.)
by David G. Collings Geoffrey T. Wood Leslie T. SzamosiDespite over three decades of debate around the nature of human resource management (HRM), its intellectual boundaries and its application in practice, the field continues to be dogged by a number of theoretical and practical limitations. Written by an international team of respected scholars, this updated textbook adopts a critical perspective to examine the core management function of HRM in all its complexity – including its darker sides. Human Resource Management: A Critical Approach opens with a critique of the very concept of HRM, tracing its development over time, and then systematically analyses the context of HRM, practice of HRM and international perspectives on HRM. New chapters commissioned for this second edition look at HRM and the issues of diversity, migration, global supply chains and economic crisis. This textbook is essential reading for advanced and inquisitive students of HRM, and for HRM professionals looking to deepen their understanding of the complexities of their field.
Human Resource Management: Strategic and International Perspectives
by Jonathan Crawshaw Pawan Budhwar Ann DavisThis book is not available as an inspection copy. For more information contact your local sales representative. A comprehensive introduction to HRM for students who are new to the field, but who will be seeking employment in a global market, working with diverse colleagues and across international borders. Broken down into three parts covering Strategic Issues in HRM, HRM in Practice and HRM in Context, and weaving international and cross-cultural perspectives throughout, the text explores the ever-changing world of human resource management. The various theories, practices and debates that populate this field are examined, and the challenges and controversies that arise when theory meets practice are explored. The international dimension in all its aspects including cross-cultural working, diversity, equality and international business have been considered throughout. Practical learning features have been included to help students develop skills they can apply to their course and in graduate employment. In the new edition, the authors have further explored the international context for HRM, not just for multinational corporations but also for small businesses and not-for-profit organizations, with added analysis on the importance of recognizing that effective functioning of organizations is not simply measured by financial performance, but also by taking into account the broader social, economic and political contexts. International case studies covering emerging economies and specific ethical issues are included with each chapter containing two case studies - one short case mid-chapter and a longer end-of-chapter case, each of which has a set of accompanying questions for students to explore individually or in groups to broaden their learning. The book is supported by a SAGE Edge site, featuring a range of tools and resources for lecturers and students, including SAGE journal articles, PowerPoint slides, web and video links, interactive multiple choice questions, chapter specific podcasts and an instructor’s manual. Suitable for undergraduates and post-graduate students looking for a strategic and international perspective of HRM.
Human Resource Management: Strategic and International Perspectives
by Jonathan Crawshaw Pawan Budhwar Ann DavisThis book is not available as an inspection copy. For more information contact your local sales representative. A comprehensive introduction to HRM for students who are new to the field, but who will be seeking employment in a global market, working with diverse colleagues and across international borders. Broken down into three parts covering Strategic Issues in HRM, HRM in Practice and HRM in Context, and weaving international and cross-cultural perspectives throughout, the text explores the ever-changing world of human resource management. The various theories, practices and debates that populate this field are examined, and the challenges and controversies that arise when theory meets practice are explored. The international dimension in all its aspects including cross-cultural working, diversity, equality and international business have been considered throughout. Practical learning features have been included to help students develop skills they can apply to their course and in graduate employment. In the new edition, the authors have further explored the international context for HRM, not just for multinational corporations but also for small businesses and not-for-profit organizations, with added analysis on the importance of recognizing that effective functioning of organizations is not simply measured by financial performance, but also by taking into account the broader social, economic and political contexts. International case studies covering emerging economies and specific ethical issues are included with each chapter containing two case studies - one short case mid-chapter and a longer end-of-chapter case, each of which has a set of accompanying questions for students to explore individually or in groups to broaden their learning. The book is supported by a SAGE Edge site, featuring a range of tools and resources for lecturers and students, including SAGE journal articles, PowerPoint slides, web and video links, interactive multiple choice questions, chapter specific podcasts and an instructor’s manual. Suitable for undergraduates and post-graduate students looking for a strategic and international perspective of HRM.
Human Resource Management: Strategic and International Perspectives
by Jonathan Crawshaw Pawan Budhwar Ann DavisA comprehensive introduction to HRM for students who are new to the field, but who will be seeking employment in a global market, working with diverse colleagues and across international borders. Broken down into three parts covering Strategic Issues in HRM, HRM in Practice and HRM in Context, and weaving international and cross-cultural perspectives throughout, the text explores the ever-changing world of human resource management. The various theories, practices and debates that populate this field are examined, and the challenges and controversies that arise when theory meets practice are explored. The international dimensions of HRM, including cross-cultural working, diversity, equality and international business, have been considered throughout. Practical learning features have been included to help students develop skills they can apply to their course and in graduate employment. In the new edition, all chapters have been thoroughly updated and the authors have included an additional chapter on Digitization and Artificial Intelligence in HRM. The book is supported by a wide range of online resources and tools for both lecturers and students, including access to SAGE journal articles, chapter specific podcasts, SAGE video, PowerPoint slides, interactive multiple choice questions and SAGE Business Cases. Suitable for undergraduates and post-graduate students looking for a strategic and international perspective of HRM.
Human Resource Management: Strategic and International Perspectives
by Jonathan Crawshaw Pawan Budhwar Ann DavisA comprehensive introduction to HRM for students who are new to the field, but who will be seeking employment in a global market, working with diverse colleagues and across international borders. Broken down into three parts covering Strategic Issues in HRM, HRM in Practice and HRM in Context, and weaving international and cross-cultural perspectives throughout, the text explores the ever-changing world of human resource management. The various theories, practices and debates that populate this field are examined, and the challenges and controversies that arise when theory meets practice are explored. The international dimensions of HRM, including cross-cultural working, diversity, equality and international business, have been considered throughout. Practical learning features have been included to help students develop skills they can apply to their course and in graduate employment. In the new edition, all chapters have been thoroughly updated and the authors have included an additional chapter on Digitization and Artificial Intelligence in HRM. The book is supported by a wide range of online resources and tools for both lecturers and students, including access to SAGE journal articles, chapter specific podcasts, SAGE video, PowerPoint slides, interactive multiple choice questions and SAGE Business Cases. Suitable for undergraduates and post-graduate students looking for a strategic and international perspective of HRM.
Human Resource Management: Strategic and International Perspectives
by Jonathan Crawshaw Pawan Budhwar Ann DavisThis popular text treats international, strategic and contemporary issues as central to the study and practice of Human Resource Management. Its practical focus helps you develop the skills needed for the world of work, through learning features such as HRM in Practice, Developing Key Skills and Debating HRM. The fourth edition has been thoroughly updated and brings you: • Case studies which offer a link between theory and practical challenges in the international HR environment • A new chapter on Work-Related Mental Health and Wellbeing • Coverage of cutting-edge topics such as Diversity and Inclusion, Sustainability, Artificial Intelligence and Corporate Social Responsibility • NEW Future Insights and Considering Sustainability features Jonathan R. Crawshaw is Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor) and Director of Research for the Work and Organisation Department at Aston Business School, Aston University. Pawan Budhwar is the 50th Anniversary Professor of International HRM at Aston Business school. Ann Davis is Professor and Associate Dean for Academic Resourcing and Development at the University of Sydney Business School.
Human Resource Management
by Gary DesslerFor courses in Management. Human Resource Management provides readers with the daily tools and skills they need to function as successful managers--in both human resources and business in general. With a practical approach, the text explores the evolution of the field, highlighting the introduction of revolutionary new technologies and social media platforms such as LinkedIn and cloud computing. The Fifteenth Edition focuses on the positive impacts technology has had on the HR field. The ability to vet potential employees on the Internet shifts more HR responsibilities to managers, leaving HR departments with more time to carry out strategic, long-term endeavors for boosting employee performance and engagement. With a heavy focus on emerging industry trends, the text prepares readers with everything they need to be successful managers and HR personnel in the 21st century.